在托?？荚囍校喿x部分經(jīng)常涉及到關(guān)于文明起源的話題,。了解這一主題的背景知識(shí),，可以幫助考生更好地理解文章內(nèi)容，提高閱讀理解能力,。本文將為大家介紹文明的起源,，尤其是美索不達(dá)米亞地區(qū)的相關(guān)信息。

TOEFL Reading Topic: The Origin of Civilization

Version 1: The origin of civilization is primarily discussed in the context of the Mesopotamian plains. Due to the rich agricultural resources, the population increased, leading to development. The text also mentions the importation of bronze from other regions, which was considered valuable and not typically used for farming tools. A question arises regarding why bronze was not used for storing crops.

Version 2: This version focuses on the origin of civilization with a primary example being the river valleys. It explains key characteristics of civilization, such as having a political center, a distinct language, and metal tools. Additionally, it discusses why Mesopotamia and Egypt imported bronze, which was expensive and mainly used for jewelry and decorations.

Analysis: The text discusses the historical development of civilization, emphasizing the factors contributing to its growth. The main idea is clear, and the structure is organized, with each paragraph likely starting with a topic sentence. Before reading the article, it can be beneficial to look at the final summary question to grasp the overall structure and content better. This approach is similar to the official TOEFL reading passage “The Rise of Teotihuacan” found in Official Test Book 8.

Related Background: Sumer

Sumer, located in southern Mesopotamia (modern-day southern Iraq), was a significant ancient civilization during the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. Historical records indicate that Sumer was first settled between 5500 and 4000 BC by a non-Semitic population, possibly speaking the Sumerian language. These early inhabitants, known as "proto-Euphrateans" or "Ubaidians," played a crucial role in developing agriculture, trade, and various industries such as weaving and pottery.

According to historian Samuel Noah Kramer, "No people has contributed more to the culture of mankind than the Sumerians." Despite this, knowledge of their existence has developed only recently. The Sumerian civilization flourished during the Uruk period (4th millennium BC) and continued into subsequent periods. A close cultural relationship formed between Sumerians and Semitic Akkadian speakers, leading to significant bilingualism and linguistic exchange.

Although Sumer was conquered around 2270 BC by the Akkadian Empire, the Sumerian language remained significant as a sacred tongue. The city of Eridu is often regarded as the world's first city, where diverse cultures merged - Ubaidian farmers, nomadic Semitic pastoralists, and local fisher folk.

The innovative irrigated farming methods and the resulting food surplus allowed the population to grow significantly, creating a need for a specialized labor force. However, over time, mismanagement of irrigation led to soil salinization and a decline in population, ultimately diminishing Sumer's prominence in the region.

Moreover, Sumer was pivotal in the early development of writing, evolving from proto-writing in the mid-4th millennium BC to fully developed writing systems in the 3rd millennium

Introduction ??

The origin of civilization is a fascinating topic that has intrigued scholars, historians, and students alike. For TOEFL candidates, understanding the main theories surrounding the emergence of civilization can enhance not only their knowledge but also their critical thinking skills. In this article, we will explore the primary theories regarding the origins of civilization, providing insights that may assist you in your studies.

1. The Agricultural Revolution Theory ??

One of the most widely accepted theories is the Agricultural Revolution theory. This theory posits that the shift from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural societies marked the beginning of civilization. As humans began to cultivate crops and domesticate animals, they established permanent settlements. This led to population growth, the development of social structures, and eventually, the rise of cities. Key terms to remember are “sedentism” and “food surplus,” as they are crucial to understanding how agriculture transformed human societies.

2. The Social Complexity Theory ???

Another significant theory is the Social Complexity theory, which suggests that civilization arose from the increasing complexity of social interactions. As groups of people began to live together in larger communities, they developed more sophisticated forms of governance, trade, and cultural practices. This theory emphasizes the importance of social organization and the role of leadership in creating structured societies. Important concepts include “hierarchy” and “division of labor,” which illustrate how civilizations manage resources and responsibilities.

3. The Environmental Determinism Theory ??

The Environmental Determinism theory argues that geographical and environmental factors significantly influenced the development of civilizations. According to this perspective, access to water sources, fertile land, and favorable climates played crucial roles in where civilizations emerged. Regions such as the Nile Valley, the Tigris-Euphrates area, and the Indus Valley are often cited as examples where environmental conditions allowed for the flourishing of complex societies. Remember the term “ecological niche” when considering how environments shaped human activities.

4. The Cultural Evolution Theory ??

This theory focuses on the idea that civilizations evolved through cultural advancements rather than just economic or environmental changes. Innovations in technology, art, and communication are seen as driving forces behind the development of civilization. The invention of writing, for example, enabled the recording of history and laws, which helped unify societies. Key phrases to note are “cultural diffusion” and “technological innovation,” as they highlight how ideas spread and evolve over time.

5. The Interaction Theory ??

Finally, the Interaction theory posits that civilizations did not develop in isolation but rather through interactions with neighboring cultures. Trade, warfare, and migration facilitated the exchange of ideas, technologies, and goods, leading to the growth of civilizations. This theory underscores the importance of connectivity and interdependence among different societies. Terms like “cultural exchange” and “cross-cultural interaction” are essential for grasping this concept.

Conclusion ??

Understanding these theories provides a comprehensive view of how civilizations may have originated. Each theory offers unique insights into the factors that contributed to the rise of complex societies. As you prepare for the TOEFL exam, consider how these theories can be applied to various historical contexts and use them to enhance your essays and discussions. Engaging with these concepts not only improves your academic performance but also enriches your understanding of human history.

在準(zhǔn)備托?？荚嚨倪^(guò)程中,，閱讀部分常常讓考生感到困惑和壓力。為了幫助大家更好地應(yīng)對(duì)這一挑戰(zhàn),，本文將分享一些關(guān)于“托福閱讀背景知識(shí)技巧”的實(shí)用建議,。掌握這些技巧,，可以有效提高你的閱讀理解能力和考試成績(jī)。??

1. 了解常見(jiàn)的學(xué)科背景

托福閱讀材料通常涵蓋多個(gè)學(xué)科,，包括歷史,、科學(xué)、文學(xué)和社會(huì)學(xué)等,。熟悉這些學(xué)科的基本概念和術(shù)語(yǔ),，可以幫助你更快地理解文章內(nèi)容。例如,，了解photosynthesis（光合作用）和ecosystem（生態(tài)系統(tǒng)）的基本原理,，可以讓你在閱讀相關(guān)生物學(xué)文章時(shí)更加得心應(yīng)手。??

2. 積累專業(yè)詞匯

托福閱讀中會(huì)出現(xiàn)許多專業(yè)詞匯,，掌握這些詞匯是提高閱讀理解的關(guān)鍵,。建議考生每天花一些時(shí)間學(xué)習(xí)新單詞，并通過(guò)閱讀相關(guān)領(lǐng)域的文章來(lái)鞏固記憶,。例如,，閱讀有關(guān)climate change（氣候變化）或art history（藝術(shù)史）的材料，可以幫助你熟悉相關(guān)領(lǐng)域的語(yǔ)言和表達(dá)方式,。??

3. 學(xué)會(huì)抓住主旨和細(xì)節(jié)

在托福閱讀中,，能夠快速識(shí)別文章的主旨和細(xì)節(jié)是非常重要的。建議考生在閱讀時(shí),，先瀏覽每段的首句和尾句,，這通常能幫助你把握段落的主要觀點(diǎn)。同時(shí),，注意文中出現(xiàn)的keywords（關(guān)鍵詞）,，這些詞往往是理解文章結(jié)構(gòu)和邏輯關(guān)系的線索。??

4. 做好筆記和標(biāo)記

在練習(xí)閱讀時(shí),，可以嘗試使用筆記和標(biāo)記的方法,。比如，在閱讀過(guò)程中,，可以用不同顏色的筆標(biāo)記出重要信息,、例子和反駁觀點(diǎn)。這種方法不僅能幫助你加深理解,，還能在復(fù)習(xí)時(shí)快速找到關(guān)鍵信息,。???

5. 進(jìn)行模擬測(cè)試

定期進(jìn)行托福閱讀的模擬測(cè)試，可以幫助你熟悉考試形式和題型,。在模擬測(cè)試中,，注意控制時(shí)間,，盡量在規(guī)定時(shí)間內(nèi)完成閱讀和答題,。之后,，可以對(duì)照參考答案進(jìn)行自我評(píng)估，找出自己的薄弱環(huán)節(jié)并加以改進(jìn),。?

6. 了解題型和解題技巧

托福閱讀有多種題型,，包括detail questions（細(xì)節(jié)問(wèn)題）、inference questions（推理問(wèn)題）和vocabulary questions（詞匯問(wèn)題）,。了解每種題型的特點(diǎn)和解題技巧,，可以幫助你更有效地應(yīng)對(duì)不同類型的問(wèn)題。例如,，對(duì)于推理問(wèn)題,，通常需要結(jié)合上下文進(jìn)行分析，而對(duì)于細(xì)節(jié)問(wèn)題,，則需要回到文章中尋找相關(guān)信息,。??

7. 保持良好的閱讀習(xí)慣

最后，培養(yǎng)良好的閱讀習(xí)慣也是提升閱讀能力的重要一環(huán),?？梢赃x擇每天閱讀一些英文材料，比如新聞,、雜志或?qū)W術(shù)文章,。這不僅能提高你的閱讀速度，還能增強(qiáng)對(duì)不同主題的理解能力,。??

希望以上的技巧能夠幫助到正在備戰(zhàn)托福的考生們,！通過(guò)不斷的練習(xí)與積累，相信你一定能夠在托福閱讀部分取得理想的成績(jī),。加油,！??