托福閱讀部分的題材廣泛,，內(nèi)容豐富，涵蓋了多個(gè)學(xué)科領(lǐng)域,。雖然官方并不要求考生對(duì)這些學(xué)科有深入了解,，但如果我們對(duì)相關(guān)知識(shí)有所掌握，將會(huì)顯著提升閱讀速度和答題準(zhǔn)確性,。因此,，了解南北戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)前美國(guó)的經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治發(fā)展是非常必要的。

獨(dú)立國(guó)家的建立 (1781-1814)

在獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)期間,，大陸會(huì)議制定了邦聯(lián)條例,，1781年至1787年間，美國(guó)13個(gè)州組成了邦聯(lián)國(guó)會(huì),，宣告成立美利堅(jiān)共和國(guó),。1787年，費(fèi)城召開(kāi)制憲會(huì)議,，大州與小州的代表經(jīng)過(guò)激烈討論,，達(dá)成共識(shí)，每州選出兩名參議員。在奴隸制問(wèn)題上,，北方對(duì)南方作出了重大妥協(xié),，承認(rèn)奴隸制的存在，并在征稅和分配眾議員席位時(shí),，南方的黑奴以3/5的人口計(jì)算,。最終，會(huì)議制定了憲法草案,，這是世界上第一部成文憲法,。1788年6月，9個(gè)州批準(zhǔn)其生效,。根據(jù)憲法，美國(guó)建立了三權(quán)分立的聯(lián)邦制國(guó)家,，后又增加了10條修正案,，被稱(chēng)為“權(quán)利法案”，于1791年12月生效,。

1789年,，聯(lián)邦政府正式成立。華盛頓成為首任總統(tǒng)（1792年連任）,。在國(guó)內(nèi)外政策的分歧中,，財(cái)政部長(zhǎng)亞歷山大·漢密爾頓組織了聯(lián)邦黨，主張中央集權(quán),，外交上親英,，控制了聯(lián)邦政府的權(quán)力。而國(guó)務(wù)卿托馬斯·杰斐遜則主張維護(hù)人民的民主權(quán)利,，支持法國(guó)革命,，成立了民主共和黨。1793年,，華盛頓在歐洲列強(qiáng)干涉法國(guó)革命時(shí)采取了中立政策,。次年11月，聯(lián)邦政府與英國(guó)簽訂了損害美國(guó)主權(quán)的《杰伊條約》,。親英與親法成為兩黨在外交政策上的主要分歧,。在內(nèi)政方面，聯(lián)邦政府制定了關(guān)稅條例,，建立了銀行以穩(wěn)定經(jīng)濟(jì),。

經(jīng)濟(jì)的南北差異發(fā)展 (1814—1861)

19世紀(jì)初，美國(guó)的領(lǐng)土從大西洋沿岸擴(kuò)展至太平洋,，經(jīng)濟(jì)也發(fā)生了顯著變化,。北方發(fā)展了海上貿(mào)易，擴(kuò)大了航運(yùn)業(yè)，實(shí)現(xiàn)了資本的原始積累,。早在1790年,，羅得島就建立了第一座棉紡廠，隨后其他工廠陸續(xù)出現(xiàn),。從19世紀(jì)初起,，大量資金流入工業(yè)，促進(jìn)了生產(chǎn)的發(fā)展,。同時(shí),，引進(jìn)西歐的科學(xué)技術(shù)，鼓勵(lì)創(chuàng)新,。到1850年代,，工業(yè)化迅速推進(jìn)，美國(guó)的工業(yè)生產(chǎn)在全球排名第四,，東北部生產(chǎn)了三分之二的制造品,。大量西歐移民涌入并向西遷移，為經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展提供了自由勞動(dòng)力,。而在南方,，基于奴隸勞動(dòng)的棉花種植園經(jīng)濟(jì)不斷擴(kuò)大，逐漸向德克薩斯州延伸,。南北雙方的爭(zhēng)執(zhí)圍繞著新開(kāi)辟地區(qū)的勞動(dòng)制度展開(kāi),，成為全國(guó)政治斗爭(zhēng)的焦點(diǎn)。1820年,，北方對(duì)南方作出讓步,，達(dá)成《密蘇里妥協(xié)案》，暫時(shí)緩解了緊張局勢(shì),。

南北戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)前的外交與政治 (1814—1861)

1823年,，美國(guó)總統(tǒng)詹姆斯·門(mén)羅發(fā)表了“門(mén)羅宣言”，反對(duì)歐洲列強(qiáng)干涉西半球事務(wù),。1846年至1848年,，美國(guó)發(fā)動(dòng)了對(duì)墨西哥的戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)，將德克薩斯,、新墨西哥和加利福尼亞納入美國(guó)領(lǐng)土,。1814年美英戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)結(jié)束時(shí)，聯(lián)邦黨試圖通過(guò)哈特福德會(huì)議分裂聯(lián)邦,，但遭到失敗,，最終瓦解。聯(lián)邦黨的衰落標(biāo)志著商業(yè)資本向工業(yè)資本的過(guò)渡,。1816年至1824年,，美國(guó)進(jìn)入了民主共和黨一黨執(zhí)政時(shí)期，代表了北方資產(chǎn)階級(jí)和南方奴隸主的共同利益，稱(chēng)為“和諧時(shí)期”,。此后,，民主共和黨分裂，政治力量重新組合,。1828年,，民主黨成立，安德魯·杰克遜當(dāng)選總統(tǒng)并連任至1837年,。1834年,，輝格黨成立。杰克遜政府將印第安人遷至密西西比河以西,，并制止了南卡羅來(lái)納州因高關(guān)稅法而掀起的分裂危機(jī),。政府還廢除了貧民因負(fù)債而受監(jiān)禁的法令，普及白人男子的普選權(quán),，進(jìn)行了一系列民主改革,，稱(chēng)為“杰克遜民主”。1828年至1856年,，民主黨和輝格黨成為主要對(duì)峙政黨，除1840年和1848年外,，其余總統(tǒng)均由民主黨獲勝,。

隨著南北經(jīng)濟(jì)制度斗爭(zhēng)的加劇和黑奴反抗的不斷興起，反奴運(yùn)動(dòng)廣泛開(kāi)展,。1840年,，主張廢奴的“自由黨”成立。1848年,，廢奴主義者及反對(duì)奴隸制的民主黨和輝格黨成員聯(lián)合成立自由土壤黨,，旨在西部建立自由州。1850年,，雙方經(jīng)過(guò)爭(zhēng)執(zhí)達(dá)成妥協(xié),，國(guó)會(huì)通過(guò)了嚴(yán)厲的逃奴追緝法。1854年,，國(guó)會(huì)通過(guò)堪薩斯—內(nèi)布拉斯加法案,，取消了奴隸州和自由州的地理界限，導(dǎo)致《密蘇里妥協(xié)案》被廢除,，遭到北方資產(chǎn)階級(jí)的強(qiáng)烈反對(duì),。1854年，共和黨成立,，明確反對(duì)奴隸制,。1856年，民主黨候選人詹姆斯·布坎南當(dāng)選總統(tǒng)，此時(shí)民主黨已成為代表奴隸主利益的政黨,。1857年,，最高法院作出斯科特判決，進(jìn)一步推動(dòng)奴隸制的全國(guó)化,。1859年,，約翰·布朗領(lǐng)導(dǎo)的反奴隸制武裝起義被鎮(zhèn)壓。1860年,，林肯作為共和黨候選人獲勝,，南方奴隸主集團(tuán)決定脫離聯(lián)邦，并于1861年2月成立南部同盟,，以維護(hù)奴隸制,。

綜上所述，南北戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)前,，美國(guó)經(jīng)歷了復(fù)雜的經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治變革,，深刻影響了國(guó)家的未來(lái)走向。這些歷史背景無(wú)疑對(duì)托?？忌拈喿x理解能力和知識(shí)儲(chǔ)備具有重要意義,。

The economic development of the United States before the Civil War was a complex interplay of various factors that shaped the nation’s growth. Understanding this period is essential for TOEFL candidates, as it provides insights into the historical context of modern America. ??

1. The Agricultural Economy ??

In the early 19th century, the Southern economy was predominantly agricultural. The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 revolutionized cotton production, making it the South’s primary cash crop. This led to an increased demand for slave labor, which became a cornerstone of the Southern economy. The agricultural success of the South contrasted sharply with the industrializing North, highlighting regional economic disparities.

2. The Rise of Industrialization ??

Meanwhile, the North experienced rapid industrial growth. Cities like New York and Philadelphia became industrial hubs, with factories producing textiles, machinery, and other goods. The transportation revolution, marked by the expansion of railroads and canals, facilitated trade and the movement of goods, further fueling economic growth. This shift from an agrarian to an industrial economy transformed the social fabric of the North, attracting immigrants and creating a diverse workforce.

3. Banking and Finance ??

The financial sector also played a crucial role in economic development. Banks began to emerge, providing loans for businesses and facilitating investment. The establishment of a national banking system in the 1860s helped stabilize the economy and fostered a more integrated financial market. This access to capital was vital for industrial expansion in the North, allowing entrepreneurs to innovate and grow their enterprises.

4. Regional Economic Differences ??

The stark contrast between the North and South created tensions that would eventually lead to the Civil War. While the North embraced industrialization and urbanization, the South remained largely agrarian, relying on slave labor. These differences were not just economic but also cultural and political, contributing to the growing divide between the two regions.

5. Impact on Society and Politics ???

The economic developments had significant societal impacts. In the North, the rise of factories led to the growth of a working class, while in the South, the plantation system entrenched social hierarchies based on race. Politically, these economic differences influenced debates over tariffs, states' rights, and ultimately, the question of slavery. The economic interests of the North and South clashed, setting the stage for conflict.

6. Conclusion: A Nation Divided ??

In summary, the economic development of the United States before the Civil War was marked by significant contrasts between the North and South. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for TOEFL students, as it illustrates the complexities of American history and the factors that shaped the nation’s trajectory. As you prepare for your exam, consider how these economic trends influenced the social and political landscape of the time.

For TOEFL preparation, focus on the following vocabulary related to this topic:

• Industrialization
• Agriculture
• Economy
• Cash Crop
• Slave Labor
• Urbanization
• Financial Sector
• Regional Differences
• Conflict

This historical context can also be useful for potential essay prompts such as:

• Discuss the impact of industrialization on American society before the Civil War.
• Analyze the economic differences between the North and South and their role in the Civil War.

By understanding these themes, you will be better equipped to tackle questions related to American history in the TOEFL exam. Good luck! ??

Understanding the Historical Background of American Politics

For students preparing for the TOEFL exam, having a solid grasp of American political history can be beneficial not only for the test but also for understanding current events. This article aims to provide insights into key events and themes that have shaped American politics over the years.

The Foundation of American Politics ???

The roots of American politics can be traced back to the late 18th century when the United States declared independence from Britain in 1776. The Declaration of Independence emphasized the principles of individual liberty and government accountability. This was followed by the Constitution, which established the framework for the federal government and remains the supreme law of the land. Understanding these foundational documents is crucial as they set the stage for subsequent political developments.

The Rise of Political Parties ??

In the early years of the republic, political factions began to emerge. The first two major parties were the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans. The Federalists, led by figures like Alexander Hamilton, favored a strong central government, while the Democratic-Republicans, led by Thomas Jefferson, advocated for states’ rights. This division laid the groundwork for the multi-party system we see today.

Civil War and Reconstruction ??

The issue of slavery created significant tensions leading up to the Civil War (1861-1865). The conflict ultimately resulted in the abolition of slavery and significant changes in American society. The Reconstruction Era attempted to address the inequalities faced by African Americans but met with resistance and led to the establishment of Jim Crow laws, which enforced racial segregation. This period is essential for understanding the ongoing struggles for civil rights in America.

The Progressive Era ??

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of the Progressive Movement, which aimed to address issues such as corruption in politics, labor rights, and women's suffrage. Key figures like Theodore Roosevelt championed reforms that expanded the role of government in regulating the economy and protecting citizens' rights. The passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, granting women the right to vote, marked a significant milestone in American democracy.

The Cold War and Civil Rights Movement ?

The mid-20th century was characterized by the Cold War, a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union. Domestically, this era also witnessed the Civil Rights Movement, which sought to end racial discrimination and secure equal rights for African Americans. Leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. played pivotal roles in advocating for nonviolent protest and legislative change, culminating in landmark legislation such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Modern Political Landscape ??

Today, American politics is influenced by various factors, including globalization, technology, and social movements. The rise of the internet has transformed how campaigns are conducted and how information is disseminated. Additionally, issues such as climate change, immigration, and healthcare continue to shape political discourse. Understanding these contemporary challenges is vital for any TOEFL examinee aiming to engage with current events critically.

Practice Questions ?

As you prepare for the TOEFL, consider the following practice questions:

• What were the main causes of the American Civil War?
• How did the Progressive Era change American politics?
• In what ways has technology impacted modern political campaigns?

Vocabulary to Know ??

• Federalism
• Constitution
• Abolition
• Segregation
• Reform
• Discrimination

Incorporating an understanding of American political history into your TOEFL preparation can enhance your comprehension skills and provide context for various topics you may encounter during the exam. By familiarizing yourself with these historical events and their implications, you will be better equipped to analyze and discuss complex issues in both writing and speaking sections.

When preparing for the TOEFL exam, understanding historical events such as the American Civil War can greatly enhance your reading and writing skills. The Civil War, fought from 1861 to 1865, was influenced by various factors that shaped its course and outcome. This article will analyze these factors, providing insights that can help you in your TOEFL preparation. ??

1. Economic Disparities

The economic differences between the North and the South were significant. The North was industrialized, with a strong manufacturing base, while the South relied heavily on agriculture, particularly cotton production. This economic divide led to conflicting interests, as the North sought to impose tariffs that would protect its industries, while the South opposed them, fearing they would harm their economy. Understanding these economic factors will help you comprehend the motivations behind the conflict. ??

2. Slavery and Social Structure

Slavery was a central issue that contributed to the tensions between the North and South. The Southern economy depended on slave labor, which the North increasingly viewed as morally wrong. Abolitionist movements gained momentum in the North, leading to heightened tensions. The moral arguments against slavery became a rallying point for many in the North, while Southern states saw any attack on slavery as a direct threat to their way of life. This social dynamic is crucial when analyzing the war's causes. ??

3. Political Conflicts

Political disagreements also played a vital role in the lead-up to the Civil War. The struggle for power between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions created a highly polarized political environment. Events like the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Dred Scott decision intensified these conflicts. Understanding these political dynamics can provide you with a deeper insight into the complexities of the Civil War. ???

4. Cultural Differences

The cultural divide between the North and South further fueled tensions. The North was more urban and progressive, while the South maintained a more traditional, agrarian lifestyle. These cultural differences manifested in various aspects of life, including education, religion, and social norms. Recognizing these cultural factors can enrich your perspective on the historical context of the Civil War. ??

5. Key Events Leading to War

Several key events marked the path to war, including the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. His platform against the expansion of slavery alarmed Southern states, leading to their secession. The firing on Fort Sumter in April 1861 marked the beginning of hostilities. Familiarizing yourself with these pivotal moments can help you construct well-informed arguments in your TOEFL essays. ??

6. International Influences

International factors also played a role in the Civil War. The British and French economies were heavily reliant on Southern cotton, which influenced their stance during the conflict. However, the Union's diplomatic efforts and the Emancipation Proclamation shifted international perceptions, making it difficult for foreign nations to support the Confederacy openly. Understanding these international dynamics can give you a broader context for the war. ??

In conclusion, analyzing the factors that influenced the American Civil War can provide valuable insights for TOEFL test-takers. By focusing on economic disparities, slavery, political conflicts, cultural differences, key events, and international influences, you can develop a nuanced understanding of this critical period in American history. This knowledge will not only enhance your reading comprehension but also improve your ability to articulate complex ideas in your writing. Good luck with your TOEFL preparation! ??